Home

Gastropoda

Gastropoda

Languages: English

Ecology

Habitat

Gastropods, the only mollusks with terrestrial representatives, occur in nearly every habitat type. On land they’re found in wet and dry areas, including deserts; from low to high elevations; from tropical to polar latitudes (as high as there is humic material and leaf litter).  Inland aquatic habitats range from puddles to lakes and rivers, fresh to salt water, and include sulfurous hot springs.  In the ocean they occupy all habitat types, from deep ocean basins and hydrothermal vent communities to high intertidal splash zones and from warm tropical waters to cold polar seas.   

(Ruppert et al., 2004; University of California Museum of Paleontology - The Gastropoda; Griffiths, 2010; J. Nekola, personal communication, January 17, 2011)

Author(s): Soulanille, Elaine
Rights holder(s): Soulanille, Elaine

Distribution

Gastropods are distributed throughout the ocean, and on land, essentially everywhere except the most extreme polar regions. They occur as far north as Point Barrow, Alaska (USA) at 71°23′20″N (J. Nekola, personal communication, January 17, 2011) and as far south as the sub-Antarctic islands (Solem & van Bruggen, 1984).  They do not occur on the Antarctic continent. 

Author(s): Soulanille, Elaine
Rights holder(s): Soulanille, Elaine

Taxonomic Children

Total: 18

Assiminea infima S. S. Berry, 1947, Bayerotrochus midas Bayer (F.M. Bayer, 1966), Buccinidae, Busycon, Cassis tuberosa (Linnaeus, 1758), Conus, Crepidula plana, Cyphoma gibbosum (Linnaeus, 1758), Epitonium angulatum, Haliotis sorenseni Bartsch, 1940, Haminoea japonica Pilsbry, 1895, Limacina, Littoraria angulifera (Lamarck, 1822), Nucella, Philomycus carolinianus (Bosc, 1802), Rapana, Siphonaria, Strombus

References

Abbot, R. T. (1960).  The genus Strombus in the Indo-Pacific. Indo-Pacific Mollusca. 1, 33-146.
Abbott, R. T. (1968).  Seashells of North America. New York (Racine Wisconsin): Golden Press (Western Publishing Company).
Anderson, J. B., & McCracken G. F. (1986).  Breeding system and population genetic structure in philomycid slugs (Mollusca: Pulmonata). Biological Journal of the Linnean Society. 29, 317-329.
Barker(editor), G. M. (2001).  The Biology of Terrestrial Molluscs. New York: CABI Publishing.
Berry, S. S. (1947).  A surprising molluscan discovery in Death Valley. Leaflets in Malacology. 1, 6-8.
Bertness, M. D., Garrity S. D., & Levings S. C. (1981).  Predation pressure and gastropod foraging: a tropical-temperate comparison. Evolution. 35, 995-1007.
Branson, B. A. (1980).  The recent Gastropoda of Oklahoma, part VIII. The slug families Limacidae, Arionidae, Veronicellidae, and Philomycidae. Proceedings of the Oklahoma Academy of Science . 60, 29-35.
Burch, J. B. (1962).  The Eastern Land Snails. Dubuque, Iowa (U.S.A.): William C. Brown Company Publishers.
Burkepile, D. E., & Hay M. E. (2007).  Predator release of the gastropod Cyphoma gibbosum increases predation on gorgonian corals. Oecologia. 154, 167-173.
Burton, M., & Burton R. (2002).  Whelks. The International Wildlife Encyclopedia. 1 , 2917-2918.
Buschman, L. L. (1984).  Larval biology and ecology of the firefly Pyractomena lucifera (Coleoptera: Lampyridae). Florida Entomologist. 67, 529-542.
Butler, A. J., Rees T., Beesley P., & Bax N. J. (2010).  Marine Biodiversity in the Australian Region. PLoS ONE. 5(8), e11831.
Butler, J., Neuman M., Pinkard D., Kvitek R., & Cochrane G. (2006).  The use of multibeam sonar mapping techniques to refine population estimates of the endangered white abalone (Haliotis sorenseni). Fisheries Bulletin. 104, 521-532.
Chambers, R. J., & McQuaid C. D. (1994).  A REVIEW OF LARVAL DEVELOPMENT IN THE INTERTIDAL LIMPET GENUS SIPHONARIA (GASTROPODA, PULMONATA) . Journal of Molluscan Studies. 60, 415-423.
Chichester, L. F., & Getz L. L. (1973).  The terrestrial slugs of northeastern North America. Sterkiana. 51, 11-42.
Chivian, E., Roberts C. M., & Bernstein A. S. (2003).  The Threat to Cone Snails. Science. 302, 391.
Chung, E. Y., Kim S. Y., Park K. H., & Park G. M. (2002).  Sexual maturation, spawning, and deposition of the egg capsules of the female purple shell, Rapana venosa (Gastropoda : Muricidae). Malacologia. 44, 241-257.
Cohen, A. N. (2005).  Guide to the Exotic Species of San Francisco Bay. Oakland, California: San Francisco Estuary Institute.
Coll, M., Piroddi C., Steenbeek J., Kaschner K., Ben Rais Lasram F., Aguzzi J., et al. (2010).  The Biodiversity of the Mediterranean Sea: Estimates, Patterns, and Threats. PLoS ONE. 5(8), e11842.
Collin, R. (2000).  Phylogeny of the Crepidula plana (Gastropoda: Calyptraeidea) cryptic species complex in North America. Canadian Journal of Zoology. 78, 1500-1514.
Collin, R. (2001).  The effects of mode of development on phylogeography and population structure of North Atlantic Crepidula (Gastropoda: Calyptraeidae). . Molecular Ecology. 10, 2249-2262.
Cook, S. B. (1971).  A STUDY OF HOMING BEHAVIOR IN THE LIMPET SIPHONARIA ALTERNATA'. Biological Bulletin. 141, 449-457.
Cornman, I. (1963).  Toxic Properties of the Saliva of Cassis. Nature. 200, 88-89.
Croll, R. P. (1983).  Gastropod chemoreception. Biological Reviews of the Cambridge Philosophical Society. 58, 239-319.
Culha, M., Bat L., Dogan A., & Dagli E. (2009).  Ecology and Distribution of the Veined Rapa Whelk Rapana venosa (Valenciennes, 1846) in Sinop Peninsula (Southern Central Black Sea), Turkey. Journal of Animal and Veterinary Advances. 8, 51-58.
Duda, T. F., & Rolan E. (2005).   Explosive radiation of Cape Verde Conus, a marine species flock. Molecular Ecology. 14, 267-272.
Duda, T. F., Bingham J. - P., Livett B. G., Kohn A. J., Massilia G. R., Schultz J. R., et al. (2004).  How much at risk are cone snails?. Science. 303, 955.
Duda, T. F., Kohn A. J., & Palumbi S. R. (2001).  Origins of diverse feeding ecologies within Conus, a genus of venemous marine gastropods. Biological Journal of the Linnean Society. 73, 391-409.
Fairbanks, H. L. (1986).  The taxonomic status of Philomycus togatus (Pulmonata:Philomycidae): a morphological and electrophoretic comparison with Philomycus carolinianus. Malacologia. 27, 271-280.
Fegan, D., & Andresen D. (1997).  Conus geographus envenomation. The Lancet. 349, 1672.
Foote, B. A. (1963).  Biology of slug-killing Tetanocera (Diptera: Sciomyzidae). Proc. North Central Branch Ent. Soc. Amer.. 13, 97.
Fujikura, K., Lindsay D., Kitazato H., Nishida S., & Shirayama Y. (2010).  Marine Biodiversity in Japanese Waters. PLoS ONE. 5(8), e11836.
Gibson, G. D., & Chia F. - S. (1989).  DESCRIPTION OF A NEW SPECIES OF HAMINOEA, HAMINOEA-CALLIDEGENITA (MOLLUSCA, OPISTHOBRANCHIA), WITH A COMPARISON WITH 2 OTHER HAMINOEA SPECIES FOUND IN THE NORTHEAST PACIFIC. Canadian Journal of Zoology. 67, 914-922.
Gibson, G. D., & Chia F. - S. (1989).  Developmental Variability (Pelagic and Benthic) in Haminoea callidegenita (Opisthobranchia: Cephalaspidea) Is Influenced by Egg Mass Jelly. Biological Bulletin. 176, 103-110.
Gibson, G. D., & Chia F. - S. (1995).  Developmental variability in the poecilogonous opisthobranch Haminaea callidegenita: life-history traits and effects of environmental parameters. Marine Ecology Progress Series. 121, 139-155.
Gilberto, D. A., Bremec C. S., Schejter L., Schiariti A., Mianzan H., & Acha E. M. (2006).  The invasive rapa whelk Rapana venosa (Valenciennes 1846): Status and potential ecological impacts in the Rio de la Plata estuary, Argentina-Uruguay. Journal of Shellfish Research. 25, 919-924.
Gosliner, T. M. (1981).  Origins and relationships of primitive members of the Opisthobranchia (Mollusca: Gastropoda). Biological Journal of the Linnean Society. 16(3), 197 - 225. Abstract
Gosliner, T. M., & Behrens D. W. (2006).  Anatomy of an invasion: Systematics and distribution of the introduced opisthobranch snail Haminoea japonica Pilsbry, 1895 (Gastropoda: Opisthobranchia: Haminoeidae). Proceedings of the California Academy of Sciences, Fourth Series. 57, 1003-1010.
Grande, C., Templado J., & Zardoya R. (2008).  Evolution of gastropod mitochondrial genome arrangements. BMC Evolutionary Biology. 8,
Griffiths, H. J. (2010).  Antarctic Marine Biodiversity – What Do We Know About the Distribution of Life in the Southern Ocean?. (Unsworth R., Ed.).PLoS ONE. 5(8), e11683.
Grimm, F. W. (1996).  Terrestrial molluscs. (SmithI M., Ed.).Assessment of species diversity in the mixedwood plains ecosystem. EMAN (Environmental Monitoring and Assessment Network).
Guilford, T., & Cuthill I. (1991).  The Evolution of Aposematism in Marine Gastropods. Evolution. 45, 449-451.
Gutierrez, P. C. (1988).  The Ecology and Behavior of the Mangrove Periwinkle, Littorina angulifera. Biotropica. 20, 352-356.
Halai, R., & Craik D. J. (2009).  Conotoxins: natural product drug leads . Natural Product Reports. 26, 526-536.
Harding, J. M., & Mann R. (1999).  Observations on the biology of the Veined Rapa whelk, Rapana venosa (Valenciennes, 1846) in the Chesapeake Bay. Journal of Shellfish Research. 18, 9-17.
Harding, J. M., & Mann R. (2005).  Veined rapa whelk (Rapana venosa) range extensions in the Virginia waters of Chesapeake Bay, USA. Journal of Shellfish Research. 24, 381-385.
Harding, J. M., Kingsley-Smith P., Savini D., & Mann R. (2007).   Comparison of predation signatures left by Atlantic oyster drills (Urosalpinx cinerea Say, Muricidae) and veined rapa whelks (Rapana venosa Valenciennes, Muricidae) in bivalve prey. Journal of Experimental Marine Biology and Ecology. 352, 1-11.
Harding, J. M., Mann R., & Kilduff C. W. (2008).  Influence of environmental factors and female size on reproductive output in an invasive temperate marine gastropod Rapana venosa (Muricidae). Marine Biology. 155, 571-581.
Harding, J. M., Mann R., Moeller P., & Hsia M. S. (2009).  Mortality of the veined rapa whelk, Rapana venosa, in relation to a bloom of Alexandrium monilatum in the York River, United States. Journal of Shellfish Research. 28, 363-367.
Henry, P-Y., & Jarne P. (2007).  Marking hard-shelled gastropods: tag loss, impact on life-history traits, and perspectives in biology. Invertebrate Biology. 126(2), 138 - 153. Abstract
Hershler, R. (1987).  Redescription of Assiminea infima Berry, 1947, from Death Valley, California. The Veliger. 29, 274-288.
Hershler, R., & Liu H. - P. (2008).  Phylogenetic relationships of assimineid gastropods of the Death Valley–lower Colorado River region: relicts of a late Neogene marine incursion?. Journal of Biogeography. 35, 1816-1825.
Hodgson, A. N. (1999).  The biology of siphonariid limpets (Gastropoda : Pulmonata). OCEANOGRAPHY AND MARINE BIOLOGY. 37, 245-314.
Hotopp, K. P., & Pearce T. A. (2006).  Land Snails of Pennsylvania.
Hubricht, L. (1985).  The distributions of the native land mollusks of the eastern United States. Fieldiana. 24, 1-191.
Hughes, R. N. (1986).  A Functional Biology of Marine Gastropods. 245. Baltimore, Maryland: Johns Hopkins University Press.
Hughes, R. N., & Hughes H. O. I. (1971).  A study of the gastropod Cassis tuberosa (L.) preying upon sea urchins . Journal of Experimental Marine Biology and Ecology. 7, 305-314.
Ingram, W. M. (1949).  Natural history observations on Philomycus carolinianus (Bosc). The Nautilus. 62, 86-90.
Jr., D. T. F., & Kohn A. J. (2005).  Species-level phylogeography and evolutionary history of the hyperdiverse marine gastropod genus Conus. Molecular Phylogenetics and Evolution. 34, 257-272.
Kaplan, E. H. (1988).  A Field Guide to Southeastern and Caribbean Seashores. Boston: Houghton Mifflin.
KAPPES, H., TOPP W., ZACH P., & KULFAN J. (2006).  Coarse woody debris, soil properties and snails (Mollusca: Gastropoda) in European primeval forests of different environmental conditions. European Journal of Soil Biology. 42(3), 139 - 146. Abstract
Kelaher, B. P. (2003).  Changes in habitat complexity negatively affect diverse gastropod assemblages in coralline algal turf.. Oecologia. 135(3), 431-41. Abstract
Keller, H. W., & Snell K. L. (2002).  Feeding activities of slugs on Myxomycetes and macrofungi. Mycologia. 94, 757-760.
Kinoshita, N. (2003).  Shell trade and exchange in the prehistory of the Ryukyu Archipelago. Bulletin of the Indo-Pacific Prehistory Association. 23, 67-72.
Kohn, A. J. (1956).  Piscivorous gastropods of the genus Conus. Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences USA. 42, 168-171.
Kohn, A. J. (1959).  The Ecology of Conus in Hawaii. Ecological Monographs. 29, 47-90.
Kohn, A. J. (1961).  Chemoreception in Gastropod molluscs. Integrative and Comparative Biology. 1(2), 291 - 308.
Kohn, A. J. (1983).  Feeding Biology of Gastropods. (Saleuddin(editor)A S M., Wilbur(editor)K M., Ed.).The Mollusca: Physiology Part 2. 5, 1-64. New York: Academic Press.
Kohn, A. J. (1983).  Microhabitat factors affecting abundance and diversity of Conus on coral reefs. Oecologia. 60, 293-301.
Kohn, A. J., Saunders P. R., & Wiener S. (1960).  Preliminary studies on the venom of the marine snail Conus. Annals of the New York Academy of Sciences. 90, 706-725.
Kozloff, E. N. (1990).  Invertebrates. Sunderland, MA.: Sinauer Associates Inc..
Lalli, C. M., & Gilmer R. W. (1989).  Pelagic Snails: the Biology of Holoplanktonic Gastropod Mollusks. 276.
Lasker, H. R., Coffroth M. A., & Fitzgerald L. M. (1988).  Foraging Patterns of Cyphoma gibbosum on Octocorals: the Roles of Host Choice and Feeding Preference. Biological Bulletin. 174, 254-266.
Malaquias, M. A. E., Berecibar E., & Reid D. G. (2009).  Reassessment of the trophic position of Bullidae (Gastropoda: Cephalaspidea) and the importance of diet in the evolution of cephalaspidean gastropods. Journal of Zoology. 277, 88-97.
Malaquias, M. A. E., Condinho S., Cervera J. L., & Sprung M. (2004).  Diet and feeding biology of Haminoea orbygniana (Mollusca: Gastropoda: Cephalaspidea). Journal of the Marine Biological Association of the United Kingdom. 84, 767-772.
McAlister, R. O., & Fisher F. M. (1968).  Responses of the False Limpet, Siphonaria Pectinata Linnaeus (Gastropoda, Pulmonata) to Osmotic Stress. Biological Bulletin. 134, 96-117.
McCormick, T. B., Buckley L. M., Brogan J., & Perry L. M. (2008).  Drift macroalgae as a potential dispersal mechanism for the white abalone Haliotis sorenseni. Marine Ecology Progress Series. 362, 225-232.
McIntosh, J. M., & Jones R. M. (2001).  Cone venom-from accidental stings to deliberate injection. Toxicon. 39, 1447-1451.
McQuaid, C. D., Cretchley R., & Rayner J. L. (1999).  Chemical defence of the intertidal pulmonate limpet Siphonaria capensis (Quoy & Gaimard) against natural predators. Journal of Experimental Marine Biology and Ecology. 237, 141-154.
Merkt, R. E., & Ellison A. M. (1998).  Geographic and habitat-specific morphological variation of Littoraria (Littorinopsis) angulifera (Lamarck, 1822). Malacologia. 40, 279-295.
Metaxas, A., & Kelly N. E. (2010).  Do Larval Supply and Recruitment Vary among Chemosynthetic Environments of the Deep Sea?. (Thrush S., Ed.).PLoS ONE. 5(7), e11646.
Mills, S. W., Mullineaux L. S., & Tyler P. A. (2007).  Habitat Associations in Gastropod Species at East Pacific Rise Hydrothermal Vents (9°50'N. Biological Bulletin. 212, 185-194. Abstract
Miloslavich, P., Díaz J M., Klein E., Alvarado J J., Díaz C., Gobin J., et al. (2010).  Marine Biodiversity in the Caribbean: Regional Estimates and Distribution Patterns. PLoS ONE. 5(8), e11916.
Morris, P. A. (1973).  A Field Guide to Shells of the Atlantic and Gulf Coasts and the West Indies. Boston: Houghton Mifflin.
NatureServe (2010).  NatureServe Explorer: An online encyclopedia of life. Version 7.1. . Arlington, Virginia: NatureServe.
Nelson, L. (2004).  Venomous snails: One slip, and you're dead.... 429, 798-799.
Nowlis, J. P. (1993).  Mate- and Oviposition-Influenced Host Preferences in the Coral-Feeding Snail Cyphoma Gibbosum. Ecology. 74, 1959-1969.
Ocana, T. M. J. (2003).  Growth, mortality and longevity in two populations of Siphonaria pectinata (Pulmonata) at Gibraltar. Journal of Molluscan Studies. 69, 162-164.
Ocana, T. M. J., & Emson R. H. (1999).  Maturation, spawning, and development in Siphonaria pectinata Linnaeus (Gastropoda: Pulmonata) at Gibraltar. Journal of Molluscan Studies. 65, 185-193.
Olivera, B. M. (2002).  Conus venom peptides: relections from the biology of clades and species. Annual Review of Ecology and Systematics. 33, 25-47.
Olivera, B. M., Rivier J., Clark C., Ramilo C. A., Corpuz G. P., Abogadie F. C., et al. (1990).  Diversity of Conus Neuropeptides. Science. 249, 257-263.
Pilsbry, H. A. (1948).  Mollusca of North America (north of Mexico) (1939-1948). Monograph 3, Philadelphia, Pennsylvania: The Academy of Natural Sciences of Philadelphia.
Poutiers, J. M. (1998).  Gastropods. (CarpenterK E., NiemV H., Ed.).FAO species identification guide for fisheries purposes: the living marine resources of the Western Central Pacific. Rome: FAO.
Rehder, H. A. (1981).  The Audubon Society Field Guide to North American Seashells. New York: Alfred A. Knopf.
Reid, D. G., Dyal P., & Williams S. T. (2010).  Global diversification of mangrove fauna: a molecular phylogeny of Littoraria (Gastropoda: Littorinidae). Molecular Phylogenetics and Evolution. 55, 185-201.
Reijnen, B. T., Hoeksema B. W., & Gittenberger E. (2010).  Host specificity and phylogenetic relationships among Atlantic Ovulidae (Mollusca: Gastropoda). Contributions to Zoology. 79, 69-78.
Rising, T. L., & Armitage K. B. (1969).  Acclimation to temperature by the terrestrial gastropods, Limax maximus and Philomycus carolinianus: Oxygen consumption and temperature preference. Comp. Biochem. Physiol.. 30, 1091-1114.
Rosenberg, G. (1989).  Aposematism Evolves by Individual Selection: Evidence from Marine Gastropods with Pelagic Larvae. Evolution. 43, 1811-1813.
Rosenberg, G. (1991).  Aposematism and Synergistic Selection in Marine Gastropods. Evolution. 45, 451-454.
Rowley, M. A., Loker E. S., Pagels J. F., & Montali R. J. (1987).  Terrestrial gastropod hosts of Parelaphostrongylus tenuis at the National Zoological Park's Conservation and Research Center, Virginia. Journal of Parasitology. 73, 1084-1089.
Ruppert, E. E., Fox R. S., & Barnes R. D. (2004).  Invertebrate Zoology: a Functional Evolutionary Approach. 963 plus index. Belmont, CA: Thomson Learning, Inc. - Brooks/Cole.
Sada, D. W. (2001).  Demography and habitat use of the Badwater snail (Assiminea infima), with observations on its conservation status, Death Valley National Park, California, U.S.A.. Hydrobiologia. 466, 255-265.
Savini, D., Harding J. M., & Mann R. (2002).   Rapa whelk Rapana venosa (Valenciennes, 1846) predation rates on hard clams Mercenaria mercenaria (Linnaeus, 1758). Journal of Shellfish Research. 21, 777-779.
Scholz, T., Pechek M. C. F., & Rodriguez-Canul R. (1995).  BIOLOGY OF CRASSICUTIS-CICHLASOMAE, A PARASITE OF CICHLID FISHES IN MEXICO AND CENTRAL-AMERICA. Journal of Helminthology. 69, 69-75.
Schroeder, R. E. (1962).  XXXXX. Sea Frontiers. 8, 156.
Snyder, N., & Snyder H. (1970).  Alarm Response of Diadema antillarum. Science. 168, 276-278.
Solem(editor), A., & van Bruggen(editor) A. C. (1984).  World-Wide Snails: Biogeographical Studies on non-marine Mollusca. Leiden, The Netherlands: E. J. Brill. Abstract
Spinella, A., Alvarez L. A., & Cimino G. (1998).  Alkylphenols from the Cephalaspidean Mollusc Haminoea callidegenita. Tetrahedron Letters. 39, 2005-2008.
Stewart, J., & Gilly W. F. (2005).  Piscivorous behavior of a temperate cone snail, Conus californicus. Biological Bulletin. 209, 146-153.
Thompson, J. M., Appel A. G., Sibley J. L., Keever G. J., & Foshee W. G. (2006).  Comparative water relations of three sympatric terrestrial slugs (Stylommatophora: Agriolimacidae, Limacidae, and Philomycidae). Journal of Alabama Academy of Sciences. 77, 181-192.
Tracey, S., Todd J., & Erwin E. H. (1993).  Mollusca: Gastropoda. (Benton(editor)M J., Ed.).The Fossil Record. 2, 131-167. London: Chapman & Hall.
Underwood, A. J. (1979).  The Ecology of Intertidal Gastropods. Advances in Marine Biology. 16, 111 - 210.
Wade, C. M., Mordan P. B., & Clarke B. (2001).  A phylogeny of the land snails (Gastropoda: Pulmonata). Proceedings of the Royal Society B: Biological Sciences. 268(1465), 413 - 422. Abstract
Warmke, G. L., & Abbott R. T. (1961).  Caribbean Seashells: A Guide to the Marine Mollusks of Puerto Rico and other West Indian Islands, Bermuda, and the Lower Florida Keys. Wynnewood, PA: Livingston Publishing Company.
Webb, G. R. (1950).  New and neglected philomycids and the genus Eumelus Rafinesque (Mollusca, Gastropoda, Pulmonata). Transactions of the American Microscopical Society . 69, 54-63.
Webb, G. R. (1950).  Slug behavior, Ariolimax vs. Philomycus. The Nautilus . 63, 106-107.
Witherington, B., & Witherington D. (2007).  Florida's Seashells: a Beachcomber's Guide. Sarasota, Florida: Pineapple Press.
Zinsmeister, W. J. (1976).  A new genus and species of the gastropod family Struthiolariidae, Antarctodarwinella ellioti, from Seymour Island, Antarctica. Ohio Journal of Science. 76, 111-114.